The non-profit nano-Control International Foundation advocates for strict regulations on indoor air quality and stricter control over the installation and operation of toner-based devices, such as laser printers and copiers. Achieving high standards in indoor air quality is essential to protect public health and minimize exposure to harmful pollutants.
Indoor Air Quality Matters
The WHO's 2008 Air Quality Guidelines laid the foundation for EU air quality policy for years but focused solely on outdoor air. However, the European Court of Auditors 2018 Report on Air Pollution revealed that “our health is still inadequately protected. [...] Air pollution causes around 400,000 premature deaths and hundreds of billions of euros in health-related costs annually in the EU”.1
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the critical role of indoor air quality (IAQ) was brought to the forefront. Once an outdoor-only concern, air pollution became a measurable threat indoors as airborne viruses spread and highlighted the importance of clean indoor air for health, well-being, productivity, and learning. Businesses recognized that indoor air quality is not only vital for health but also crucial for economic stability.
Suddenly, there was widespread interest in indoor air, as clean and healthy air became a critical economic consideration for businesses. For some, this was because air quality protection is their business model; for others, because they depend on healthy, productive employees.
While the pandemic has had tragic consequences for many, it should also serve as a call to recognize that healthy, pollutant-free air in indoor spaces, where modern individuals spend 90% of their time must be a given—whether at workplaces or homes.
Paradigm Shift in Air Quality
In 2021, the WHO updated its air quality guidelines placing outdoor and indoor air first time equal standing. Additionally, the guidelines include best practices for managing ultra-fine particles, defining high particle number concentrations (PNC) as
International Expert Group Speaks Out
In March 2024, more than 40 international experts called for global air quality standards for public buildings, targeting three primary pollutants: carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and respirable PM2.5 particles. They also advocated for legally binding ventilation rates.
Despite 20 years of research providing a scientific basis, the development of effective air quality regulations has been hindered by a "complex political, social, and legal situation“.
During the pandemic, Professor Lidia Morawska from Queensland University of Technology (QUT) organized 240 scientists who successfully urged the WHO and other regulatory bodies to update their guidance on COVID-19 transmission. Her work underscores the importance of bridging science and policy to establish impactful indoor air quality standards.3
According to Cath Noakes of the University of Leeds, “We need to raise awareness that indoor air is important. Many indoor spaces are public spaces where individuals have little control over the quality of the air they breathe. [...] The introduction of standards for air quality in public buildings recognizes the right of those who use these buildings to expect a safe and healthy environment, just as one should have confidence in food hygiene or fire safety regulations.” 4
IAQ: Ongoing Debate on Measurement Methods
Studies show that toner-based laser printers and copiers significantly impact indoor air quality. In Germany, approximately 20 million such devices are installed in offices and public spaces. Poor indoor air quality can cause health impairments and, over prolonged exposure, lead to illnesses.
Worldwide, there are few legal standards for indoor air quality (IAQ), and they seldom address concentrations of indoor pollutants. The widespread use of outdated gravimetric measurements, which assess particulate mass in µg/m³, fails to account for the significant health risks posed by ultrafine particles (1–100 nanometers) due to their negligible mass. This outdated method often underestimates the dangers of ultrafine particles, giving a misleading impression of safety.
Environmental Label „Blue Angel“
For over a decade, the Blue Angel environmental label has used particle counting as a test method, acknowledging that risk assessment based on the weight of ultra-fine particles is impractical, as these particles are too light in weight.
Operating laser printers indoors has been shown to significantly reduce air quality, emitting up to 7.6 billion ultra-fine particles from a single page printed (known as the Initial Burst). These findings, measured by the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) in 2011, served as the basis for Blue Angel testing requirements.5
The German Federal Environment Agency (UBA) currently awards the Blue Angel certification to devices emitting ≤ 3.0 x 10¹¹ particles per 10 minutes (PER10 PW), with a new limit of ≤ 2.5 x 10¹¹ particles per 10 minutes set to take effect in January 2025.
However, Computer Bild reported in Dezember 2023/Oktober 2024 under the title “Fast, brilliant, cheap and harmful to health?” that emissions from laser printers have shown little improvement since 2014, underscoring the need for more stringent policies.6
nano-Control estimated in umwelt - medizin - gesellschaft (2019) on the basis of data from He et al. 2007 and Salthammer et al. 2012 that an individual exposed to 33,000 particles/cm³ could inhale 1.19 x 10¹¹ particles (119 billion) over an eight-hour workday, representing 2.4% of a printer’s total emissions during that time.
Addressing the Problem of Gravimetric Measurement
Current standards based on gravimetric (mass-based) methods inadequately capture the impact of ultrafine particles. Since ultrafine particles from laser printer emissions range from 1 to 100 nanometers, they are practically invisible and too light to be reliably measured by mass. This underestimation leads to health risks being dismissed as negligible.
nano-Control advocates for standardized particle-counting methods with regular measurements that account for variables such as print volume, room size, ventilation rates, and employee exposure times.
Soot Particles in Diesel Exhaust Gases - Particle Counting Standard since 2023
The successful implementation of particle-counting standards for diesel exhaust emissions in 2023 could serve as a model for indoor air. With a limit of 250,000 particles/cm³, this approach uses advanced measuring devices to ensure compliance. A similar model could be adapted to manage indoor air quality.
nano-Control, International Foundation
The voluntary nano-Control, International Foundation and its predecessor organization, the citizens' initiative ITG, have been working for almost 30 years on a vital issue, the protection of indoor air, where we spend more than 90% of lifetime. For good reason, the priority issue has been to achieve regulations on emissions from toner-based laser printers and copiers.
However, the main goal of our foundation is and remains clean, healthy indoor air, because breathing is essential to life.
Reports from 4,000 Affected Individuals
Over the last 25 years, the foundation has recorded reports from 4,000 individuals (primarily from Germany) who attribute their health issues to exposure to ultra-fine emissions from laser printers and copiers. Many of these individuals have spent over a decade seeking explanations for their chronic health problems, with some now severely ill. Studies show that fine dust, including that from laser printers, can have serious health impacts, including:
Health Risks and Long-Term Impact
Scientific data increasingly supports a link between indoor air quality and various health conditions. The following health risks have been identified for exposure to printer emissions.
Reports indicate that individuals experience relief from acute respiratory and skin conditions outside of work but suffer exacerbations upon returning, pointing to workplace exposure as a key factor.)
The Volunteer Advisory Team
The volunteer advisory team tirelessly assists affected with knowledge accumulated over three decades of consulting and personal experience. One of the advisory team’s main areas of focus is providing information on ways to avoid exposure in one’s environment.
However, this is complicated by obstacles in the workplace, where the effects of exposure are not officially recognized by government authorities, manufacturers, or even employers’ insurance. Employers continue to receive messages from the German Social Accident Insurance Association (DGUV) that toner emissions from laser printers and copiers pose no health risks when used as intended.
This stance is devastating for individuals who work daily in close proximity to these devices. They receive no support for protecting their health, suffer from long-term exposure, and are not adequately treated or compensated for job-related illnesses that often develop over years.
Protecting Vulnerable Populations, Especially Children
During the COVID-19 pandemic, laser printers increasingly found their way into private homes due to the rise in home offices. The Federal Environment Agency (UBA) had already recommended in 2014, as part of Germany’s Sustainability Award, that laser printers should never be placed in children’s rooms or bedrooms. However, to this day, there are no mandatory regulations to enforce this.
The sale, distribution, placement, and operation of these high-tech devices—whose toner and cartridges are classified as hazardous waste and should not be accessible to children—remain largely unregulated. Some manufacturers' recommendations are in place, but they are mostly optional.
Children are more vulnerable than adults and are thus particularly affected by emissions from laser printers. These emissions contain ultra-fine particles, electrostatically charged metal particles, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and numerous other pollutants. This mix of tiny particles, which largely remains unknown in composition, can seriously impair the development of young children. Unfortunately, indoor studies on this issue are still lacking.
Ultra-fine particles are so small that they can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, crossing all barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, to reach every cell in the body.
It has been observed that "as the amount of UFPs (ultra-fine particles) increases, so do inflammation levels in the blood (CRP) and exhaled air (nitric oxide). [...] Scientists conclude that ultra-fine particles in the air may not directly affect lung health in children but do have systemic effects, influencing inflammation throughout the body." 7
„Once upon a time, plastic was fantastic“
Allan Fluharty noted in 2005 „The xerographic process is probably the third greatest money-making idea in the history of mankind, right after religion and compound interest.”
In the early decades, there were few problems with laser printers. The components were relatively coarse, with only a few very expensive devices on the market, and people were aware of their dangers well into the 1990s. Print rooms were sealed off, and staffs were trained to handle open cartridges. Some older employees still remember streaky, uneven copies.
With nanotechnology making breakthroughs just before the millennium, doors opened wide for printer manufacturers. Print quality improved tremendously, with tiny particles accurately applied to paper. Unfortunately, these particles also dispersed almost invisibly into the surrounding air. The manufacturers’ association BITKOM claimed that toner cartridges emit nothing harmful and that devices pose no health risks when used correctly. Devices became widely accessible, and current estimates indicate there are around one billion laser printers worldwide.
Composition of Toner Ingredients is a “Dance on a Knife's Edge”
According to BITKOM, “toner preparations comply with the safety standards in the European Union. [...] According to the binding classification criteria for preparations of the European Union (Directive 1999/45/EC), toners for laser printers, copiers and multifunctional devices of the original manufacturers organized in BITKOM are generally not classified as hazardous, i.e. in particular not classified as toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction, sensitizing or corrosive.“
Directive 1999/45/EC, also known as the Preparation Directive, is an EU directive that aligns the classification, packaging, and labeling regulations for hazardous preparations across member states, neither more nor less.
In 2007, laser printers were on their way to becoming a “lifestyle product” and wanted to conquer living rooms. At the Chip Roundtable, a panel of experts discussed the potential risks associated with fine dust emissions from these devices. One participant remarked, “You can safely eat our toner, but it doesn't taste good.” This expert argued that they also had a strong vested interest in harmless products. “But seriously, there is no health risk. [...] After all, none of us have a death wish.“ 8
The German Raw Materials and Chemical Industry Employers' Liability Insurance Association (BGRCI) noted in 2024,
“The toners available on the market consist mainly of a polymer matrix (e.g., polyester or epoxy resins) with color pigments (industrial carbon black in black toners). Electrostatic charge is influenced by a variety of additives to achieve precise printing.“ 9
Micro- and Nanoplastics
It is roughly estimated that each printed dot contains at least one plastic or toner powder particle, whether from the powder itself, the casing, or the formulation.10 With a print resolution of 1,200 × 1,200 dpi, a single A4 sheet could contain approx. seven million micro plastic particles at an average print coverage of 5%.
nano-Control states: “Toners are mix of electrostatically charged micro- and nanoplastic particles, various chemicals, and metals, including rare earths elements, such as Fe (iron), Al (aluminum), Ag (silver), As (arsenic), Au (gold), Cd (cadmium), Co (cobalt), Cu (copper), Cr (chromium), Fe (iron), Hg (mercury), Mn (manganese), Ni (nickel), Pb (lead), Pd (palladium), Sb (antimony), Si (silicon), Sn (tin), Sr (strontium), Ti (titanium), Zn (zinc), gadolinium, zirconium, tellurium, tungsten, tantalum and others.“
Toner patents reveal that chemical and metallic additives serve functional purposes beyond delivering crisp print quality. These additives prevent mold, rust, improve flow, and act as plasticizers, among other functions.
Early investigations of emissions revealed endocrine disruptors such as organotin compounds (DBT and TBT) and bisphenol-A, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), phthalates, volatile halogenated compounds, etc.
Toner as Microplastics: Industry Perspective
The manufacturers themselves offer valuable insights into toner formulations. At the 2018 workshop "Toner Particles as Microplastics," organized by the EU authority ECHA in Helsinki, Xerox provided details on microplastic components in toner: “Particles of synthetic polymers combined with wax and pigments, such as styrene acrylate or polyester. Treated with surface additives, these particles measure between 4.5 and 12 micrometers.” According to Xerox, these components pose no risks, as the microplastic melts into the paper as a coating during printing.
The manufacturer also highlighted that replacing millions of laser printers with inkjet models would entail astronomical costs. Concluding their presentation, Xerox expressed hope that "toner would be excluded from the microplastics restriction.11
In a Xerox safety data sheet of the year 2022, the company acknowledged: “Although toner is not an aquatic toxin, microplastics may pose a physical hazard to aquatic life and should not be discharged into drains, sewers or waterways.” 12
These toner ingredients from various manufacturers can be extremely hazardous to humans and the environment, including “contaminants.” These hidden elements in the formulations should not simply be allowed to "disappear." Regulations, not mere recommendations, are necessary.
The EU Chemicals Regulation (REACH) – Toners, Mixtures, and Polymers
2005 Criticism of “REACH at the workplace” on polymers: no lip service
In 2005, concerns were raised regarding the REACH workplace regulations for polymers. Representatives from the EGB and DGB warned: “From an occupational health and safety perspective, the at least temporary exclusion of polymers from registration requirements is questionable. The COM draft's proposal to consider including the most problematic polymers must not remain mere lip service. Many toner ingredients are hazardous substances that do not require disclosure due to their low concentration. They are still considered contaminants. Potential synergy effects among the various toxic substances remain largely uninvestigated and are likely unknown.“
As of January 1, 2025, according to the ECHA Poison Center’s website, all toners and inks in the EU will be required to carry a UFI code. This unique formula identifier is mandated for products classified as health-hazardous or physically dangerous according to Article 45 of the EU CLP Regulation. Products with this classification carry a pictogram and may be harmful if not used correctly.“ 13
Research in Germany
Since the turn of the millennium, the nano-Control Foundation—and previously the Interest group for toner victims Interessengemeinschaft Tonergeschädigter (ITG)—has been working to inform employers' liability insurance associations, authorities, and policymakers about the risks and health impacts of emissions from laser printers on consumers and affected individuals. In 2001, however, the German Verwaltungs-Berufsgenossenschaft (VBG) concluded that there was no scientific evidence linking toner dust to specific illnesses.
In 2005, a pilot study conducted by the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) in coordination with the ITG found that potential risks from toner emissions could not be ruled out. Although the state committed to further research, no follow-up studies were conducted over the next two decades—apart from research on household appliances and candle burners, which concluded that emissions from a toaster are allegedly comparable to those from a laser printer. From our perspective, this conclusion is completely incomprehensible.
nano-Control argues that the comparison with toasters is fundamentally flawed. Toast is a regulated food item, and when used as intended, its emissions pose minimal or no harm to human health.
Additionally, nobody operates a toaster eight hours daily over years, inhaling its exhaust.
To advance research on laser printer emissions in Germany, the voluntary nano-Control Foundation has donated €120,000.
In 2013, a pilot study at the Universitätsklinikum Freiburg (IUK Freiburg) examined 28,000 gene effect mechanisms, revealing that inflammatory and immunological effects occur shortly after exposure.
These findings align with longstanding international research on the adverse health effects of particulate matter. Current statistics further indicate that both indoor and outdoor air pollution contribute significantly to particulate matter-related mortality.
Simultaneously, the German Social Accident Insurance Association (DGUV) commissioned the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU) to study laser printer emissions, focusing only on a 75-minute short-term exposure scenario. Only immediate effects were examined; there were no follow-up studies, and repeated exposure was not investigated. The study did not yield consistent results; on average, no significant symptoms were observed. Individuals with ongoing occupational disease claims were excluded from these studies in advance.
According to legal requirements and their own statutes, DGUV members are obligated to ensure occupational safety, prevent occupational diseases, and provide compensation to affected individuals. However, as mandatory insurers, they face an inherent conflict of interest, as scientific evidence could potentially lead to compensation costs in the billions for those affected (see UMG 2-2024, page 42 et seq., Statutory Accident Insurance in Germany. A system of “institutionalized corruption”? Johannes Ludwig).
nano-Control NEWS
nano-Control extends its sincere gratitude to the scientists at the University of Massachusetts Lowell and the Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry in Mainz for their invaluable support of our voluntary efforts over the past five years. We are pleased to present a summary of their findings.
„Self-reported symptoms associated with the use of printer and photocopier machines:
Results from the nano-Control, International Foundation survey“ 14
Over many years, the international nano-Control foundation has carefully and systematically collected information on the health symptoms and exposure conditions of office workers who, in their own estimation, were exposed to printers and photocopiers in Germany, using a detailed questionnaire. The data was collected from around 2,000 participants between 1999 and 2010. After many years in which no one in Germany was interested in this data, in 2021 a team of researchers from the College of Health Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Lowell in the US, led by Professors Dhimiter and Anila Bello, systematically evaluated the data and published the results in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.14
Prof. Dhimiter Bello's group has been investigating the chemistry and toxicology of nanoparticle emissions from printers and photocopiers for many years.
This study documented that workers who reported being exposed to particles from these machines, including copy and printing machine operators, technicians and office workers, were also very likely to report respiratory illnesses (90% of 1.998 respondents), allergies (70% of respondents), and other health symptoms or diseases, including asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, 15% of respondents), bronchial hyperreactivity, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, metal allergies (nickel and cobalt), gastrointestinal disorders and some cancers. The researchers found that half of the workers reported that their acute respiratory and skin conditions improved significantly away from work (e.g. at weekends or on vacation) and worsened when they returned to work, indicating an important role of workplace exposure in the reported symptoms.
„Visible toner dust” - a surrogate for exposure to printer-emitted particles (PEP) - was a strong predictor of several health outcomes, including chronic fatigue, bronchial hyperreactivity, asthma/COPD and cardiovascular disease, as shown by the high and statistically significant adjusted odds ratios.
In the paper, the scientists acknowledge several limitations related to the self-reported qualitative data, lack of quantitative exposure assessment and other confounding factors, and concede that further epidemiologic research is needed to quantitatively link PEP exposure to adverse health outcomes. However, the most commonly reported health symptoms in this data set are consistent with the limited available and credible studies in animals, healthy volunteers, and epidemiologic studies in print workers. The scientists conclude that it is not justified to continue to dismiss workers' concerns as unfounded.
The good news is that there are already simple and cost-effective solutions to reduce or even eliminate PEP exposure that can be easily implemented on a large scale.
Rethinking Required for IAQ
The current measures in Germany, specifically the Blue Angel certification process for low-emission laser printers, have failed to sufficiently protect public health, according to nano-Control. Only the latest generation of printers, incorporating cutting-edge technology, meets the "low-emission" criteria for Blue Angel certification.
Despite this, millions of printers—both newer and older models—continue to emit billions of invisible, harmful particles, degrading indoor air quality. Employers' liability insurance associations still assure users and affected individuals that “certified devices, when used as intended, pose no significant health risk,” often stating that the emissions consist mostly of “the emissions consist almost entirely of tiny liquid droplets.”
However, no one monitors whether these devices are used as intended, nor are there any mandatory regular air quality tests in device locations, emission limits, or technical guidelines for emissions. Malfunctioning devices may not be replaced, reinforcing a “no complainant, no action” approach.
The only tangible sign for users is an unusual smell; a chemical or metallic odor is a clear indication that safety measures should be taken.
If the requirements of human health come into conflict with the health requirements of other living beings, the health needs of humans must be prioritized. However, if a comfortable lifestyle jeopardizes the sustainability of natural resources, the protection of the life-sustaining ecosystem must take precedence.15
Market Regulate Everything!?
Analyses of the printer toner market indicate that manufacturers struggle to comply with consumer protection and environmental regulations, as market dynamics favor expansion and profit optimization. The laws of the market for expansion and profit optimization prevail.
„Stringent government regulations on VOC emissions may hamper industry growth - various international regulatory bodies such as the FDA, OSHA, EU and others have issued regulations and guidelines on the use of toners for product packaging in the food and pharmaceutical industry to maintain quality or mitigate the harmful/toxic effects of volatile organic compounds emitted in food and pharmaceutical products on humans and the environment at large.
This trend is likely to continue and could pose a major obstacle to the expansion of the global printer toner market. However, the introduction of alternative materials with technological advancements could help overcome this obstacle.“ 16
Safer-by-Design Guidelines for Nanomaterials
Over the past 10 years, the industry has developed a Safer-by-Design (SbD) concept. The Sorbonne University in Paris reported in 2019 that “nanomaterials that are still in the research-phase with the aim of optimizing the performance of the material while minimizing its toxicity.” 17
20 years after the introduction of nanotechnology, Germany is now beginning to report on the implementation of safer-by-design guidelines for the nanotechnology industry.18
“The SbD strategy aims to reduce uncertainties in materials research and increase safety for people and the environment. In addition, the proposed strategy ensures the collection of safety-relevant data throughout the entire development process in compliance with legal requirements and ensures transparent communication of risks at an early stage of the innovation process.“ 19
nano-Control – Key requirements
Prioritize Clean Air—Especially Indoor Air
Because the risks of these technologies have often been secondary concerns for the industry since they were introduced to the market, nano-Control supports the call from the 40 scientists, led by Lidia Morawska (QUT), for mandatory air quality regulations in public buildings. These regulations, however, should apply to all indoor spaces, as we spend 90% of our lifetime indoors.
Standards for Ultrafine Particles
nano-Control asserts that there is an urgent need to address even smaller particles, PM1 and PM0.1, in air quality standards. These particles can penetrate all protective barriers, including the blood-brain barrier. This particle size range remains largely unexplored in current research assessments.
Warnings from scientists must be taken seriously. Significant progress can be achieved if we prioritize indoor air protection and implement effective measures.
Dean Schraufnagel describes “Air pollution is a silent epidemic, and PM0.1 is perhaps the quietest of all pollutants.“ 20
The German Bundestag’s Scientific Service published an updated report in May 2024 on the health effects of ultra-fine dust, citing Schraufnagel’s work: “Above all, ultrafine particulate matter plays an important role in the development of respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma, as well as cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks and strokes.“ 21
Nancy Guo of West Virginia University noted in her research on laser printer emissions: "There is one group in particular that I think should know: pregnant women. Because once many of these genes are altered, they are passed down through the generations. It's not just about you.“ 22
Only Addressing Symptoms!?
nano-Control advocates for:
Legal Framework for Clean Indoor Air Globally
Clean Indoor Air as a Human Right
The United Nations recognized the right to clean air as a human right in 2022, which applies to indoor air as well. The EU has established stricter limits for outdoor air quality for 2035 in line with WHO guidelines, yet there are still no clear regulations for indoor air quality. Those affected remain without legal protection.
"Breathing means living—clean air must become the standard."
Acessibility Reinforcement Act (BFSG) 2025 – Contaminated Air as a Barrier
Starting in 2025, the Barrier-Free Accessibility Act (BFSG) will come into force in Germany, aiming to ensure that indoor environments are accessible to all, including vulnerable groups. For people with heightened sensitivities, current conditions in medical facilities, educational institutions, and public buildings are inadequate, effectively excluding them from these spaces.
Circular Economy of Toner and Cartridges – A "Cradle-to-Grave" Process
nano-Control finds that the “circular economy” of toner and cartridges largely operates on a "cradle-to-grave" model. Toner materials primarily enter the production cycle as new raw materials and eventually end up as non-recyclable waste. Globally, laser printers and copiers consume approximately
1.2 million tons of toner annually, with significant quantities ultimately polluting the environment. 23
The production and disposal process also generate vast amounts of solid waste. In waste management terms, printed paper is essentially "hazardous waste" due to the various metals and chemical components in toner. This contamination likely affects recycled paper as well, since completely removing these substances during recycling is challenging.
Roughly only a quarter of toner cartridges are reused, meaning 6 out of 10 cartridges end up in household waste, where the plastic components can take up to 450 years to decompose—some parts requiring over 1,000 years. 24
The practice of using children to collect empty toner cartridges, such as with "Meike, der Sammeldrachen", which recently celebrated its 20th anniversary, remains controversial.
Waste toner is non-recyclable. It is estimated that vast amounts of micro- and nanoplastics, along with metallic fine dust particles, are irretrievably released from printers into the air we breathe and the broader environment.
In fact, the disposal of toner cartridges as household waste is prohibited in Germany under threat of a fine. 25
Of course, this cannot be controlled and is not a global standard. Here too, the manufacturers are completely shirking their responsibility.
Environment Impact
Billions of devices release worldwide billions of ultrafine particles into indoor air with every printed page—particles that are unregulated and harmful. This pollution also impacts the environment: Italian scientists observed toner particles on flower pollen in outdoor air samples collected from four cities, linking this finding to discussions about toner’s health risks indoors. 26
The Supply Chain: A "Dirty Business"
From the production of toner and cartridges through to end-user use and disposal, additionally polluting the indoor air with ultrafine particles, the laser printing industry’s supply chain can be described—essentially as a “dirty business”. Manufacturers have largely refrained from offering clean, sustainable solutions at these stages.
Zero Emission Goal and Indoor Air
If Germany’s estimated 20 million laser printers were replaced with inkjet models, the energy savings could reach 1 terawatt-hour per year, a substantial reduction compared to the country's total annual consumption of 550 terawatt-hours.
With billions of laser printers emitting countless particles, we cannot afford to overlook their environmental and health impact. Embracing the zero-emission target means extending protections to the indoor environment, making every workplace and home a safe, breathable space.
Occupational safety and increased productivity
The nano-Control Foundation advocates for immediate action to reduce emissions from laser printers and ensure healthy indoor environments. Clean air is not only essential for health but also boosts productivity and well-being.
Companies often track employee well-being and productivity using HR Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). These metrics could demonstrate the positive impact of clean, pollution-free indoor air on employee health and productivity. The benefits are clear—we just need to take action.
Author:
Heike Krüger
Chairwoman, nano-Control International Foundation
(The board and founders purely work on a voluntary basis dedicated to indoor air quality for nearly 30 years)
To support our work: Donate to the account of nano-Control
IBAN: DE34 2005 0550 1280 3874 89, BIC: HASPDEHHXXX , Hamburger Sparkasse
Sources
Indoor Air Quality Matters
The WHO's 2008 Air Quality Guidelines laid the foundation for EU air quality policy for years but focused solely on outdoor air. However, the European Court of Auditors 2018 Report on Air Pollution revealed that “our health is still inadequately protected. [...] Air pollution causes around 400,000 premature deaths and hundreds of billions of euros in health-related costs annually in the EU”.1
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the critical role of indoor air quality (IAQ) was brought to the forefront. Once an outdoor-only concern, air pollution became a measurable threat indoors as airborne viruses spread and highlighted the importance of clean indoor air for health, well-being, productivity, and learning. Businesses recognized that indoor air quality is not only vital for health but also crucial for economic stability.
Suddenly, there was widespread interest in indoor air, as clean and healthy air became a critical economic consideration for businesses. For some, this was because air quality protection is their business model; for others, because they depend on healthy, productive employees.
While the pandemic has had tragic consequences for many, it should also serve as a call to recognize that healthy, pollutant-free air in indoor spaces, where modern individuals spend 90% of their time must be a given—whether at workplaces or homes.
Paradigm Shift in Air Quality
In 2021, the WHO updated its air quality guidelines placing outdoor and indoor air first time equal standing. Additionally, the guidelines include best practices for managing ultra-fine particles, defining high particle number concentrations (PNC) as
- >10,000 particles/cm³ (24-hour average)
- 20,000 particles/cm³ (1-hour average)
International Expert Group Speaks Out
In March 2024, more than 40 international experts called for global air quality standards for public buildings, targeting three primary pollutants: carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and respirable PM2.5 particles. They also advocated for legally binding ventilation rates.
Despite 20 years of research providing a scientific basis, the development of effective air quality regulations has been hindered by a "complex political, social, and legal situation“.
During the pandemic, Professor Lidia Morawska from Queensland University of Technology (QUT) organized 240 scientists who successfully urged the WHO and other regulatory bodies to update their guidance on COVID-19 transmission. Her work underscores the importance of bridging science and policy to establish impactful indoor air quality standards.3
According to Cath Noakes of the University of Leeds, “We need to raise awareness that indoor air is important. Many indoor spaces are public spaces where individuals have little control over the quality of the air they breathe. [...] The introduction of standards for air quality in public buildings recognizes the right of those who use these buildings to expect a safe and healthy environment, just as one should have confidence in food hygiene or fire safety regulations.” 4
IAQ: Ongoing Debate on Measurement Methods
Studies show that toner-based laser printers and copiers significantly impact indoor air quality. In Germany, approximately 20 million such devices are installed in offices and public spaces. Poor indoor air quality can cause health impairments and, over prolonged exposure, lead to illnesses.
Worldwide, there are few legal standards for indoor air quality (IAQ), and they seldom address concentrations of indoor pollutants. The widespread use of outdated gravimetric measurements, which assess particulate mass in µg/m³, fails to account for the significant health risks posed by ultrafine particles (1–100 nanometers) due to their negligible mass. This outdated method often underestimates the dangers of ultrafine particles, giving a misleading impression of safety.
Environmental Label „Blue Angel“
For over a decade, the Blue Angel environmental label has used particle counting as a test method, acknowledging that risk assessment based on the weight of ultra-fine particles is impractical, as these particles are too light in weight.
Operating laser printers indoors has been shown to significantly reduce air quality, emitting up to 7.6 billion ultra-fine particles from a single page printed (known as the Initial Burst). These findings, measured by the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) in 2011, served as the basis for Blue Angel testing requirements.5
The German Federal Environment Agency (UBA) currently awards the Blue Angel certification to devices emitting ≤ 3.0 x 10¹¹ particles per 10 minutes (PER10 PW), with a new limit of ≤ 2.5 x 10¹¹ particles per 10 minutes set to take effect in January 2025.
However, Computer Bild reported in Dezember 2023/Oktober 2024 under the title “Fast, brilliant, cheap and harmful to health?” that emissions from laser printers have shown little improvement since 2014, underscoring the need for more stringent policies.6
nano-Control estimated in umwelt - medizin - gesellschaft (2019) on the basis of data from He et al. 2007 and Salthammer et al. 2012 that an individual exposed to 33,000 particles/cm³ could inhale 1.19 x 10¹¹ particles (119 billion) over an eight-hour workday, representing 2.4% of a printer’s total emissions during that time.
Addressing the Problem of Gravimetric Measurement
Current standards based on gravimetric (mass-based) methods inadequately capture the impact of ultrafine particles. Since ultrafine particles from laser printer emissions range from 1 to 100 nanometers, they are practically invisible and too light to be reliably measured by mass. This underestimation leads to health risks being dismissed as negligible.
nano-Control advocates for standardized particle-counting methods with regular measurements that account for variables such as print volume, room size, ventilation rates, and employee exposure times.
Soot Particles in Diesel Exhaust Gases - Particle Counting Standard since 2023
The successful implementation of particle-counting standards for diesel exhaust emissions in 2023 could serve as a model for indoor air. With a limit of 250,000 particles/cm³, this approach uses advanced measuring devices to ensure compliance. A similar model could be adapted to manage indoor air quality.
nano-Control, International Foundation
The voluntary nano-Control, International Foundation and its predecessor organization, the citizens' initiative ITG, have been working for almost 30 years on a vital issue, the protection of indoor air, where we spend more than 90% of lifetime. For good reason, the priority issue has been to achieve regulations on emissions from toner-based laser printers and copiers.
However, the main goal of our foundation is and remains clean, healthy indoor air, because breathing is essential to life.
Reports from 4,000 Affected Individuals
Over the last 25 years, the foundation has recorded reports from 4,000 individuals (primarily from Germany) who attribute their health issues to exposure to ultra-fine emissions from laser printers and copiers. Many of these individuals have spent over a decade seeking explanations for their chronic health problems, with some now severely ill. Studies show that fine dust, including that from laser printers, can have serious health impacts, including:
Health Risks and Long-Term Impact
Scientific data increasingly supports a link between indoor air quality and various health conditions. The following health risks have been identified for exposure to printer emissions.
- Respiratory conditions (e.g., asthma, bronchitis, COPD, lung cancer)
- Cardiovascular diseases (e.g., arteriosclerosis, hypertension, heart attack)
- Neurological disorders (e.g., cognitive decline, migraines, concentration issues)
- Autoimmune and inflammatory conditions (e.g., MCS, CFS, diabetes)
- Immune dysfunction and allergies, eye and skin irritations
Reports indicate that individuals experience relief from acute respiratory and skin conditions outside of work but suffer exacerbations upon returning, pointing to workplace exposure as a key factor.)
The Volunteer Advisory Team
The volunteer advisory team tirelessly assists affected with knowledge accumulated over three decades of consulting and personal experience. One of the advisory team’s main areas of focus is providing information on ways to avoid exposure in one’s environment.
However, this is complicated by obstacles in the workplace, where the effects of exposure are not officially recognized by government authorities, manufacturers, or even employers’ insurance. Employers continue to receive messages from the German Social Accident Insurance Association (DGUV) that toner emissions from laser printers and copiers pose no health risks when used as intended.
This stance is devastating for individuals who work daily in close proximity to these devices. They receive no support for protecting their health, suffer from long-term exposure, and are not adequately treated or compensated for job-related illnesses that often develop over years.
Protecting Vulnerable Populations, Especially Children
During the COVID-19 pandemic, laser printers increasingly found their way into private homes due to the rise in home offices. The Federal Environment Agency (UBA) had already recommended in 2014, as part of Germany’s Sustainability Award, that laser printers should never be placed in children’s rooms or bedrooms. However, to this day, there are no mandatory regulations to enforce this.
The sale, distribution, placement, and operation of these high-tech devices—whose toner and cartridges are classified as hazardous waste and should not be accessible to children—remain largely unregulated. Some manufacturers' recommendations are in place, but they are mostly optional.
Children are more vulnerable than adults and are thus particularly affected by emissions from laser printers. These emissions contain ultra-fine particles, electrostatically charged metal particles, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and numerous other pollutants. This mix of tiny particles, which largely remains unknown in composition, can seriously impair the development of young children. Unfortunately, indoor studies on this issue are still lacking.
Ultra-fine particles are so small that they can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, crossing all barriers, including the blood-brain barrier, to reach every cell in the body.
It has been observed that "as the amount of UFPs (ultra-fine particles) increases, so do inflammation levels in the blood (CRP) and exhaled air (nitric oxide). [...] Scientists conclude that ultra-fine particles in the air may not directly affect lung health in children but do have systemic effects, influencing inflammation throughout the body." 7
„Once upon a time, plastic was fantastic“
Allan Fluharty noted in 2005 „The xerographic process is probably the third greatest money-making idea in the history of mankind, right after religion and compound interest.”
In the early decades, there were few problems with laser printers. The components were relatively coarse, with only a few very expensive devices on the market, and people were aware of their dangers well into the 1990s. Print rooms were sealed off, and staffs were trained to handle open cartridges. Some older employees still remember streaky, uneven copies.
With nanotechnology making breakthroughs just before the millennium, doors opened wide for printer manufacturers. Print quality improved tremendously, with tiny particles accurately applied to paper. Unfortunately, these particles also dispersed almost invisibly into the surrounding air. The manufacturers’ association BITKOM claimed that toner cartridges emit nothing harmful and that devices pose no health risks when used correctly. Devices became widely accessible, and current estimates indicate there are around one billion laser printers worldwide.
Composition of Toner Ingredients is a “Dance on a Knife's Edge”
According to BITKOM, “toner preparations comply with the safety standards in the European Union. [...] According to the binding classification criteria for preparations of the European Union (Directive 1999/45/EC), toners for laser printers, copiers and multifunctional devices of the original manufacturers organized in BITKOM are generally not classified as hazardous, i.e. in particular not classified as toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, toxic for reproduction, sensitizing or corrosive.“
Directive 1999/45/EC, also known as the Preparation Directive, is an EU directive that aligns the classification, packaging, and labeling regulations for hazardous preparations across member states, neither more nor less.
In 2007, laser printers were on their way to becoming a “lifestyle product” and wanted to conquer living rooms. At the Chip Roundtable, a panel of experts discussed the potential risks associated with fine dust emissions from these devices. One participant remarked, “You can safely eat our toner, but it doesn't taste good.” This expert argued that they also had a strong vested interest in harmless products. “But seriously, there is no health risk. [...] After all, none of us have a death wish.“ 8
The German Raw Materials and Chemical Industry Employers' Liability Insurance Association (BGRCI) noted in 2024,
“The toners available on the market consist mainly of a polymer matrix (e.g., polyester or epoxy resins) with color pigments (industrial carbon black in black toners). Electrostatic charge is influenced by a variety of additives to achieve precise printing.“ 9
Micro- and Nanoplastics
It is roughly estimated that each printed dot contains at least one plastic or toner powder particle, whether from the powder itself, the casing, or the formulation.10 With a print resolution of 1,200 × 1,200 dpi, a single A4 sheet could contain approx. seven million micro plastic particles at an average print coverage of 5%.
nano-Control states: “Toners are mix of electrostatically charged micro- and nanoplastic particles, various chemicals, and metals, including rare earths elements, such as Fe (iron), Al (aluminum), Ag (silver), As (arsenic), Au (gold), Cd (cadmium), Co (cobalt), Cu (copper), Cr (chromium), Fe (iron), Hg (mercury), Mn (manganese), Ni (nickel), Pb (lead), Pd (palladium), Sb (antimony), Si (silicon), Sn (tin), Sr (strontium), Ti (titanium), Zn (zinc), gadolinium, zirconium, tellurium, tungsten, tantalum and others.“
Toner patents reveal that chemical and metallic additives serve functional purposes beyond delivering crisp print quality. These additives prevent mold, rust, improve flow, and act as plasticizers, among other functions.
Early investigations of emissions revealed endocrine disruptors such as organotin compounds (DBT and TBT) and bisphenol-A, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), phthalates, volatile halogenated compounds, etc.
Toner as Microplastics: Industry Perspective
The manufacturers themselves offer valuable insights into toner formulations. At the 2018 workshop "Toner Particles as Microplastics," organized by the EU authority ECHA in Helsinki, Xerox provided details on microplastic components in toner: “Particles of synthetic polymers combined with wax and pigments, such as styrene acrylate or polyester. Treated with surface additives, these particles measure between 4.5 and 12 micrometers.” According to Xerox, these components pose no risks, as the microplastic melts into the paper as a coating during printing.
The manufacturer also highlighted that replacing millions of laser printers with inkjet models would entail astronomical costs. Concluding their presentation, Xerox expressed hope that "toner would be excluded from the microplastics restriction.11
In a Xerox safety data sheet of the year 2022, the company acknowledged: “Although toner is not an aquatic toxin, microplastics may pose a physical hazard to aquatic life and should not be discharged into drains, sewers or waterways.” 12
These toner ingredients from various manufacturers can be extremely hazardous to humans and the environment, including “contaminants.” These hidden elements in the formulations should not simply be allowed to "disappear." Regulations, not mere recommendations, are necessary.
The EU Chemicals Regulation (REACH) – Toners, Mixtures, and Polymers
2005 Criticism of “REACH at the workplace” on polymers: no lip service
In 2005, concerns were raised regarding the REACH workplace regulations for polymers. Representatives from the EGB and DGB warned: “From an occupational health and safety perspective, the at least temporary exclusion of polymers from registration requirements is questionable. The COM draft's proposal to consider including the most problematic polymers must not remain mere lip service. Many toner ingredients are hazardous substances that do not require disclosure due to their low concentration. They are still considered contaminants. Potential synergy effects among the various toxic substances remain largely uninvestigated and are likely unknown.“
As of January 1, 2025, according to the ECHA Poison Center’s website, all toners and inks in the EU will be required to carry a UFI code. This unique formula identifier is mandated for products classified as health-hazardous or physically dangerous according to Article 45 of the EU CLP Regulation. Products with this classification carry a pictogram and may be harmful if not used correctly.“ 13
Research in Germany
Since the turn of the millennium, the nano-Control Foundation—and previously the Interest group for toner victims Interessengemeinschaft Tonergeschädigter (ITG)—has been working to inform employers' liability insurance associations, authorities, and policymakers about the risks and health impacts of emissions from laser printers on consumers and affected individuals. In 2001, however, the German Verwaltungs-Berufsgenossenschaft (VBG) concluded that there was no scientific evidence linking toner dust to specific illnesses.
In 2005, a pilot study conducted by the Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) in coordination with the ITG found that potential risks from toner emissions could not be ruled out. Although the state committed to further research, no follow-up studies were conducted over the next two decades—apart from research on household appliances and candle burners, which concluded that emissions from a toaster are allegedly comparable to those from a laser printer. From our perspective, this conclusion is completely incomprehensible.
nano-Control argues that the comparison with toasters is fundamentally flawed. Toast is a regulated food item, and when used as intended, its emissions pose minimal or no harm to human health.
Additionally, nobody operates a toaster eight hours daily over years, inhaling its exhaust.
To advance research on laser printer emissions in Germany, the voluntary nano-Control Foundation has donated €120,000.
In 2013, a pilot study at the Universitätsklinikum Freiburg (IUK Freiburg) examined 28,000 gene effect mechanisms, revealing that inflammatory and immunological effects occur shortly after exposure.
These findings align with longstanding international research on the adverse health effects of particulate matter. Current statistics further indicate that both indoor and outdoor air pollution contribute significantly to particulate matter-related mortality.
Simultaneously, the German Social Accident Insurance Association (DGUV) commissioned the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU) to study laser printer emissions, focusing only on a 75-minute short-term exposure scenario. Only immediate effects were examined; there were no follow-up studies, and repeated exposure was not investigated. The study did not yield consistent results; on average, no significant symptoms were observed. Individuals with ongoing occupational disease claims were excluded from these studies in advance.
According to legal requirements and their own statutes, DGUV members are obligated to ensure occupational safety, prevent occupational diseases, and provide compensation to affected individuals. However, as mandatory insurers, they face an inherent conflict of interest, as scientific evidence could potentially lead to compensation costs in the billions for those affected (see UMG 2-2024, page 42 et seq., Statutory Accident Insurance in Germany. A system of “institutionalized corruption”? Johannes Ludwig).
nano-Control NEWS
nano-Control extends its sincere gratitude to the scientists at the University of Massachusetts Lowell and the Max-Planck-Institute for Chemistry in Mainz for their invaluable support of our voluntary efforts over the past five years. We are pleased to present a summary of their findings.
„Self-reported symptoms associated with the use of printer and photocopier machines:
Results from the nano-Control, International Foundation survey“ 14
Over many years, the international nano-Control foundation has carefully and systematically collected information on the health symptoms and exposure conditions of office workers who, in their own estimation, were exposed to printers and photocopiers in Germany, using a detailed questionnaire. The data was collected from around 2,000 participants between 1999 and 2010. After many years in which no one in Germany was interested in this data, in 2021 a team of researchers from the College of Health Sciences at the University of Massachusetts Lowell in the US, led by Professors Dhimiter and Anila Bello, systematically evaluated the data and published the results in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine.14
Prof. Dhimiter Bello's group has been investigating the chemistry and toxicology of nanoparticle emissions from printers and photocopiers for many years.
This study documented that workers who reported being exposed to particles from these machines, including copy and printing machine operators, technicians and office workers, were also very likely to report respiratory illnesses (90% of 1.998 respondents), allergies (70% of respondents), and other health symptoms or diseases, including asthma/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, 15% of respondents), bronchial hyperreactivity, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, metal allergies (nickel and cobalt), gastrointestinal disorders and some cancers. The researchers found that half of the workers reported that their acute respiratory and skin conditions improved significantly away from work (e.g. at weekends or on vacation) and worsened when they returned to work, indicating an important role of workplace exposure in the reported symptoms.
„Visible toner dust” - a surrogate for exposure to printer-emitted particles (PEP) - was a strong predictor of several health outcomes, including chronic fatigue, bronchial hyperreactivity, asthma/COPD and cardiovascular disease, as shown by the high and statistically significant adjusted odds ratios.
In the paper, the scientists acknowledge several limitations related to the self-reported qualitative data, lack of quantitative exposure assessment and other confounding factors, and concede that further epidemiologic research is needed to quantitatively link PEP exposure to adverse health outcomes. However, the most commonly reported health symptoms in this data set are consistent with the limited available and credible studies in animals, healthy volunteers, and epidemiologic studies in print workers. The scientists conclude that it is not justified to continue to dismiss workers' concerns as unfounded.
The good news is that there are already simple and cost-effective solutions to reduce or even eliminate PEP exposure that can be easily implemented on a large scale.
Rethinking Required for IAQ
The current measures in Germany, specifically the Blue Angel certification process for low-emission laser printers, have failed to sufficiently protect public health, according to nano-Control. Only the latest generation of printers, incorporating cutting-edge technology, meets the "low-emission" criteria for Blue Angel certification.
Despite this, millions of printers—both newer and older models—continue to emit billions of invisible, harmful particles, degrading indoor air quality. Employers' liability insurance associations still assure users and affected individuals that “certified devices, when used as intended, pose no significant health risk,” often stating that the emissions consist mostly of “the emissions consist almost entirely of tiny liquid droplets.”
However, no one monitors whether these devices are used as intended, nor are there any mandatory regular air quality tests in device locations, emission limits, or technical guidelines for emissions. Malfunctioning devices may not be replaced, reinforcing a “no complainant, no action” approach.
The only tangible sign for users is an unusual smell; a chemical or metallic odor is a clear indication that safety measures should be taken.
If the requirements of human health come into conflict with the health requirements of other living beings, the health needs of humans must be prioritized. However, if a comfortable lifestyle jeopardizes the sustainability of natural resources, the protection of the life-sustaining ecosystem must take precedence.15
Market Regulate Everything!?
Analyses of the printer toner market indicate that manufacturers struggle to comply with consumer protection and environmental regulations, as market dynamics favor expansion and profit optimization. The laws of the market for expansion and profit optimization prevail.
„Stringent government regulations on VOC emissions may hamper industry growth - various international regulatory bodies such as the FDA, OSHA, EU and others have issued regulations and guidelines on the use of toners for product packaging in the food and pharmaceutical industry to maintain quality or mitigate the harmful/toxic effects of volatile organic compounds emitted in food and pharmaceutical products on humans and the environment at large.
This trend is likely to continue and could pose a major obstacle to the expansion of the global printer toner market. However, the introduction of alternative materials with technological advancements could help overcome this obstacle.“ 16
Safer-by-Design Guidelines for Nanomaterials
Over the past 10 years, the industry has developed a Safer-by-Design (SbD) concept. The Sorbonne University in Paris reported in 2019 that “nanomaterials that are still in the research-phase with the aim of optimizing the performance of the material while minimizing its toxicity.” 17
20 years after the introduction of nanotechnology, Germany is now beginning to report on the implementation of safer-by-design guidelines for the nanotechnology industry.18
“The SbD strategy aims to reduce uncertainties in materials research and increase safety for people and the environment. In addition, the proposed strategy ensures the collection of safety-relevant data throughout the entire development process in compliance with legal requirements and ensures transparent communication of risks at an early stage of the innovation process.“ 19
nano-Control – Key requirements
Prioritize Clean Air—Especially Indoor Air
Because the risks of these technologies have often been secondary concerns for the industry since they were introduced to the market, nano-Control supports the call from the 40 scientists, led by Lidia Morawska (QUT), for mandatory air quality regulations in public buildings. These regulations, however, should apply to all indoor spaces, as we spend 90% of our lifetime indoors.
Standards for Ultrafine Particles
nano-Control asserts that there is an urgent need to address even smaller particles, PM1 and PM0.1, in air quality standards. These particles can penetrate all protective barriers, including the blood-brain barrier. This particle size range remains largely unexplored in current research assessments.
Warnings from scientists must be taken seriously. Significant progress can be achieved if we prioritize indoor air protection and implement effective measures.
Dean Schraufnagel describes “Air pollution is a silent epidemic, and PM0.1 is perhaps the quietest of all pollutants.“ 20
The German Bundestag’s Scientific Service published an updated report in May 2024 on the health effects of ultra-fine dust, citing Schraufnagel’s work: “Above all, ultrafine particulate matter plays an important role in the development of respiratory diseases such as lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma, as well as cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks and strokes.“ 21
Nancy Guo of West Virginia University noted in her research on laser printer emissions: "There is one group in particular that I think should know: pregnant women. Because once many of these genes are altered, they are passed down through the generations. It's not just about you.“ 22
Only Addressing Symptoms!?
nano-Control advocates for:
- Separate rooms for printer operation: Printers should be installed and operated in separate rooms with automatic supply and exhaust ventilation. Forced ventilation or air purification may be necessary, depending on scientific recommendations. Printers should not be connected to central air conditioning systems.
- Filter Installation: Laser printers should never be operated without filters! Studies show that over 90% of particle emissions can be captured using internal or external filters, offering effective health protection.
- Regular Air Quality testing: Annual particle counts should be mandatory, with maximum allowable particle concentrations (PNC) set at <10,000 particles/cm³ (24-hour average) or 20,000 particles/cm³ (1-hour average).
- Use of Air Purification Devices
- Transition to inkjet technology: Switch to inkjet printers instead of toner-based laser printers, especially in home offices. Inkjet technology reduces indoor air contamination, saving up to 90% on energy use and reducing CO₂ emissions, benefiting both indoor air quality and climate protection.
Legal Framework for Clean Indoor Air Globally
Clean Indoor Air as a Human Right
The United Nations recognized the right to clean air as a human right in 2022, which applies to indoor air as well. The EU has established stricter limits for outdoor air quality for 2035 in line with WHO guidelines, yet there are still no clear regulations for indoor air quality. Those affected remain without legal protection.
"Breathing means living—clean air must become the standard."
Acessibility Reinforcement Act (BFSG) 2025 – Contaminated Air as a Barrier
Starting in 2025, the Barrier-Free Accessibility Act (BFSG) will come into force in Germany, aiming to ensure that indoor environments are accessible to all, including vulnerable groups. For people with heightened sensitivities, current conditions in medical facilities, educational institutions, and public buildings are inadequate, effectively excluding them from these spaces.
Circular Economy of Toner and Cartridges – A "Cradle-to-Grave" Process
nano-Control finds that the “circular economy” of toner and cartridges largely operates on a "cradle-to-grave" model. Toner materials primarily enter the production cycle as new raw materials and eventually end up as non-recyclable waste. Globally, laser printers and copiers consume approximately
1.2 million tons of toner annually, with significant quantities ultimately polluting the environment. 23
The production and disposal process also generate vast amounts of solid waste. In waste management terms, printed paper is essentially "hazardous waste" due to the various metals and chemical components in toner. This contamination likely affects recycled paper as well, since completely removing these substances during recycling is challenging.
Roughly only a quarter of toner cartridges are reused, meaning 6 out of 10 cartridges end up in household waste, where the plastic components can take up to 450 years to decompose—some parts requiring over 1,000 years. 24
The practice of using children to collect empty toner cartridges, such as with "Meike, der Sammeldrachen", which recently celebrated its 20th anniversary, remains controversial.
Waste toner is non-recyclable. It is estimated that vast amounts of micro- and nanoplastics, along with metallic fine dust particles, are irretrievably released from printers into the air we breathe and the broader environment.
In fact, the disposal of toner cartridges as household waste is prohibited in Germany under threat of a fine. 25
Of course, this cannot be controlled and is not a global standard. Here too, the manufacturers are completely shirking their responsibility.
Environment Impact
Billions of devices release worldwide billions of ultrafine particles into indoor air with every printed page—particles that are unregulated and harmful. This pollution also impacts the environment: Italian scientists observed toner particles on flower pollen in outdoor air samples collected from four cities, linking this finding to discussions about toner’s health risks indoors. 26
The Supply Chain: A "Dirty Business"
From the production of toner and cartridges through to end-user use and disposal, additionally polluting the indoor air with ultrafine particles, the laser printing industry’s supply chain can be described—essentially as a “dirty business”. Manufacturers have largely refrained from offering clean, sustainable solutions at these stages.
Zero Emission Goal and Indoor Air
If Germany’s estimated 20 million laser printers were replaced with inkjet models, the energy savings could reach 1 terawatt-hour per year, a substantial reduction compared to the country's total annual consumption of 550 terawatt-hours.
With billions of laser printers emitting countless particles, we cannot afford to overlook their environmental and health impact. Embracing the zero-emission target means extending protections to the indoor environment, making every workplace and home a safe, breathable space.
Occupational safety and increased productivity
The nano-Control Foundation advocates for immediate action to reduce emissions from laser printers and ensure healthy indoor environments. Clean air is not only essential for health but also boosts productivity and well-being.
Companies often track employee well-being and productivity using HR Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). These metrics could demonstrate the positive impact of clean, pollution-free indoor air on employee health and productivity. The benefits are clear—we just need to take action.
Author:
Heike Krüger
Chairwoman, nano-Control International Foundation
(The board and founders purely work on a voluntary basis dedicated to indoor air quality for nearly 30 years)
To support our work: Donate to the account of nano-Control
IBAN: DE34 2005 0550 1280 3874 89, BIC: HASPDEHHXXX , Hamburger Sparkasse
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